• Violent crime counts (assaults, batteries, robberies, and homicides)
• Property crime (simple thefts, vehicle thefts, burglaries, and arson)

Burley BA. Green infrastructure and violence: Do new street trees mitigate violent crime? Health Place. 2018 Nov;54:43-49. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.08.015. Epub 2018 Sep 19.

Kondo, M., Hohl, B., Han, S., Branas, C., 2016. Effects of greening and community reuse of vacant lots on crime. Urban Stud. 53 (15), 3279–3295.

Kuo, F.E., Sullivan, W.C., 2001. Environment and crime in the inner city: does vegetation reduce crime? Environ. Behav. 33 (3), 343–367.

• Dollars spent on project (jobs supported by)
• Number and type of installation (jobs supported by)
• Improved productivity and morale

P.E.T. Edwards, A.E. Sutton-Grier, G.E. Coyle, Investing in nature: Restoring coastal habitat blue infrastructure and green job creation, Marine Policy, Volume 38, 2013, Pages 65-71.

Jobs for the Future. 2017. Exploring the Green Infrastructure Workforce. Boston, MA: Author. Exploring the Green Infrastructure Workforce

Galvin, E. (2021). Where Money Grows on Trees: Job Creation and Economic Impact of Green Infrastructure for Stormwater Management in Washington, D.C. Honors Thesis Environment, Ecology and Energy Program University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

• Increase in property value over time, controlling for other factors

Sohn, W., Kim, H. W., Kim, J.-H., & Li, M.-H. (2020). The capitalized amenity of green infrastructure in single-family housing values: An application of the spatial hedonic pricing method. URBAN FORESTRY & URBAN GREENING, 49.

Lee, J.S., Li, M.-H., 2009. The impact of detention basin design on residential property value: case studies using GIS in the hedonic price modeling. Landsc. Urban Plann. 89 (1–2), 7–16. mmerling,

DiNovo, C. 2021. “Stormwater Detention Basins and Residential Locational Decisions.” JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 31 (3): 515–21. Accessed October 7. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1995.tb04038.x.

• Increase in average rental rate
• Increase in annual rental income
• Increase in retail sales

Wolf, K.L. 2004. “Nature in the Retail Environment: Comparing Consumer and Business Response to Urban Forest Conditions.” Landscape Journal 23(1): 40–51.

Wolf, K.L. 2005. “Business District Streetscapes, Trees, and Consumer Response.” Journal of Forestry 103(8): 396-400.

Wolf, K.L. 2007. “City Trees and Property Values.” Arborist News 16(4): 34–36.

Wolf, K.L. 2009. “More in Store: Research on City Trees and Retail.” Arborist News 18(2): 22–26.

Wolf, K.L. 2013. The Urban Forest. Communities & Banking 24 (2): 25–27.

• Program participation rate
• Credits generated
• Avoided fees and fee discounts
• Number of private property retrofits and associated runoff control

Malinowski, P. A. ( 1,3 ), Schwarz, P. M. ( 2 ), & Wu, J. S. ( 3 ). (n.d.). Fee Credits as an Economic Incentive for Green Infrastructure Retrofits in Stormwater-Impaired Urban Watersheds. Journal of Sustainable Water in the Built Environment, 6(4).

EPA. (2014) Getting to Green: Paying for Green Infrastructure Financing Options and Resources for Local Decision-Makers. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-02/documents/gi_financing_options_12-2014_4.pdf

UCLA Luskin School of Public Affairs (2019), Incentivizing Private Property Green Infrastructure.

• Increased or sustained attention
• task performance
• task completion time
• workplace satisfaction

Nieuwenhuis, M., Knight, C., Postmes, T., & Haslam, S. A. (2014). The relative benefits of green versus lean office space: Three field experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20(3), 199.

Gillis, Kaitlyn and Birgitta Gatersleben. 2015. “A Review of Psychological Literature on the Health and Wellbeing Benefits of Biophilic Design.” Buildings 5 (3): 948-963. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings5030948. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/review-psychological-literature-on-health/docview/1721941096/se-2.

Lee, K.E.; Williams, K.J.H.; Sargent, L.D.; Williams, N.S.G.; Johnson, K.A. 40-second green roof views sustain attention: The role of micro-breaks in attention restoration. J. Environ. Psychol. 2015, 42, 182–189.

• Reduced capital costs (stormwater storage)
• Reduced operational costs (reduced conveyance, treatment costs)
• Reduce energy demand for potable water and wastewater treatment

https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-10/documents/cnt-lancaster-report-508_1.pdf

• Number of benefits provided by land area

https://www.ceeweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/landuse_factsheet_GI.pdf

• Recreation opportunities provided by stormwater ponds
• increase in recreational trips or “user days”
• Decreased distance to recreation amenities/open space

Ureta, Joan, Marzieh Motallebi, Michael Vassalos, Mustapha Alhassan, J. Carl Ureta. ‘Valuing stakeholder preferences for environmental benefits of stormwater ponds: Evidence from choice experiment.’ Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 293, 2021.

Rollins K, Dumitras D. Estimation of median willingness to pay for a system of recreation areas. International Review on Public & Non Profit Marketing. 2005;2(1):73-84.

Su Lee, Ming-Han Li, The impact of detention basin design on residential property value: Case studies using GIS in the hedonic price modeling, Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 89, Issues 1–2, 2009, Pages 7-16,

• undergraduate research opportunities
• K- 12 active participation

Habib, Emad, et al. “Unlocking the Educational Value of Large-Scale, Coastal-Ecosystem Restoration Projects: Development of Student-Centered, Multidisciplinary Learning Modules.” BioOne Complete, Coastal Education and Research Foundation, May 2018, https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-coastal-research/volume-34/issue-3/JCOASTRES-D-17-00064.1/Unlocking-the-Educational-Value-of-Large-Scale-Coastal-cosystem-Restoration/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-17-00064.1.full.

Sandberg, Mattias, and Andreas Skriver Hansen. “From Onlookers to Ecosystem-Assistants: Exploring the Potentials of Ecological Restoration Education.” SpringerLink, Springer International Publishing, 1 Jan. 1970, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-57710-0_10.

• Perceived attractiveness
• Preference ranking/rating for different landscape design characteristics/landscape scenes

Hoyle, Helen, et al. “All about the ‘Wow Factor’? the Relationships between Aesthetics, Restorative Effect and Perceived Biodiversity in Designed Urban Planting.” Landscape and Urban Planning, Elsevier, 7 May 2017, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204617300701.

Botes, Chad M. and Zanni, A. M. (2021) “Trees, ground vegetation, sidewalks, cycleways: users’ preferences and economic values for different elements of an urban street – a case study in Taipei.” Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, vol. 23 Iss. 1 (Jan 2021). 145 – 171.

• Physical activity level (self-reported and/or observed type, intensity and duration)
• Estimated health benefits from green infrastructure based on metabolic equivalent of task (MET)

Kim, Gunwoo, and Patrick A. Miller. “The Impact of Green Infrastructure on Human Health and Well-Being: The Example of the Huckleberry Trail and the Heritage Community Park and Natural Area in Blacksburg, Virginia.” Sustainable Cities and Society, Elsevier, 22 Apr. 2019, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S221067071830831X.

Bowen, Kathryn J, and Yvonne Lynch. “The Public Health Benefits of Green Infrastructure: The Potential of Economic Framing for Enhanced Decision-Making.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Elsevier, 12 Oct. 2017, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343516300707.

Maas J., Verheij R., de Vries S., Spreeuwnberg P., Schellevis F., Groenewegen P. ‘Morbidity is related to a Green Living Environment.’ Journal Epidemial Community Health,  2009, 63: 967-973.

Lovell, Sarah Taylor, and John R. Taylor. “Supplying Urban Ecosystem Services through Multifunctional Green Infrastructure in the United States – Landscape Ecology.” SpringerLink, Springer Netherlands, 9 July 2013, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10980-013-9912-y.

• Reduced anxiety and stress
• Increase in: alcohol consumption, stress, medication use, visits to the doctor, food intake, domestic violence, use of technologies, sadness, loneliness and anxiety

Moreira, Tiana C. L., et al. “Assessing the Impact of Urban Environment and Green Infrastructure on Mental Health: Results from the São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 11 June 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-021-00349-x.

Hunter, MaryCarol R, et al. “Urban Nature Experiences Reduce Stress in the Context of Daily Life Based on Salivary Biomarkers.”Frontiers in Psychology, Frontiers in Psychology, 4 Apr. 2019, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00722/full.

Jato-Espino, Daniel et al. “Spatial Statistical Analysis of the Relationship Between Self-Reported Mental Health During the COVID-19 Lockdown and Closeness to Green Infrastructure.” Urban forestry & urban greening. 68 (2022)

• self-reported ratings of social networks (for neighborhood safety, support, extent of local acquaintances, willingness of neighbors to offer help);
• Observation of social interactions (Level of engagement in programs, activities, interactions)
• Structural social capital measures (network formation, coalition-building)
• Cognitive social capital measures (trust, reciprocity, norms)

Fisch, J. Does Green Infrastructure Promote Equitable Development? The Mediating Role of Social Capital in Shaping Impacts Dissertation School of City and Regional Planning Georgia Institute of Technology.August 2019.

• Soundscape (presence of bird song, leaves rustling etc.) (continuous sound level, instantaneous minimum sound level), maximum sound level)
• Level of irritability from noise
• Reduction in noise decibels

Bernatzky, Aloys. “The Contribution of Trees and Green Spaces to a Town Climate.” Energy and Buildings, Elsevier, 13 Feb. 2003, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0378778882900226.

• reduction in number of accidents and pedestrian injuries/fatalities attributable to the presence of green infrastructure features

https://smartgrowthamerica.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/cs-safety.pdf

• Yields of individual crops per area
• Amount of green infrastructure integrated into existing urban agricultural systems
• Amount of food provided to urban and suburban communities

Yacamán Ochoa, Carolina, et al. “Green Infrastructure Planning in Metropolitan Regions to Improve the Connectivity of Agricultural Landscapes and Food Security.” MDPI, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 28 Oct. 2020, https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/9/11/414/htm.

• Type of land use being restored
• Landscape restoration activity and extent
• Objective of restoration/ecosystem services to be restored

Wainaina, P., Minang, P. A., Gituku, E., & Duguma, L. (2020). Cost-Benefit Analysis of Landscape Restoration: A Stocktake. LAND, 9(11).

• Type and number of pollinators attracted by plants included in green infrastructure
• Diversity of pollinators present
• Flower bed pollinator visitations by type of green space

Llodrà-Llabrés, Joana, and Paloma Cariñanos. “Enhancing Pollination Ecosystem Service in Urban Green Areas: An Opportunity for the Conservation of Pollinators.” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, Urban & Fischer, 4 June 2022, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866722001649.

Daniels, Benjamin, et al. “A ‘Plan Bee’ for Cities: Pollinator Diversity and Plant-Pollinator Interactions in Urban Green Spaces.” PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, 15 July 2020, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0235492.

• Reduction in outdoor irrigation (avoided lawn irrigation)
• Avoided water infrastructure capital and operating costs (treatment plant expansion)
• Value of water retained in situ rather than pumped

Andrea K. Gerlak, Alison Elder, Mitch Pavao-Zuckerman, Adriana Zuniga-Teran & Andrew R. Sanderford (2021) Agency and governance in green infrastructure policy adoption and change, Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 23:5, 599-615

Coughlin, K., Bolduc, C., Chan, P., Dunham-Whitehead, C., & Van Buskirk, R. (2008). Valuing the Environmental Benefits of Urban Water Conservation. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

• Level of particulate matter (PM) and gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) removed by green infrastructure
• Deposition rates of pollutants to vegetation
• Change in pollutant dispersion rates attributable to green infrastructure

Tomson, M., Kumar, P., Barwise, Y., Perez, P., Forehead, H., French, K., Morawska, L., & Watts, J. F. (2021). Green infrastructure for air quality improvement in street canyons. Environment International, 146

Alida Alves, Berry Gersonius, Zoran Kapelan, Zoran Vojinovic, Arlex Sanchez,

Assessing the Co-Benefits of green-blue-grey infrastructure for sustainable urban flood risk management, Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 239, 2019,Pages 244-254.

• Amount of stormwater retailed
• Total suspended solids (TSS) retained
• Total phosphorus (TP) retained

Nordman EE, Isely E, Isely P, Denning R. Benefit-cost analysis of stormwater green infrastructure practices for Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;200:501-510.

• Land Surface Temperature (LST)
• Park Cool Island (PCI) effect (the temperature difference between urban green spaces and their surrounding built-up terrain)
• Indirect/ancillary air quality improvements and carbon emission reductions

Marando F, Salvatori E, Sebastiani A, Fusaro L, Manes F. Regulating Ecosystem Services and Green Infrastructure: assessment of Urban Heat Island effect mitigation in the municipality of Rome, Italy. Ecological Modelling. 2019;392:92-102.

Saaroni, J.H. Amorim, J.A. Hiemstra, D. Pearlmutter, Urban Green Infrastructure as a tool for urban heat mitigation: Survey of research methodologies and findings across different climatic regions, Urban Climate, Volume 24, 2018, Pages 94-110.

• Degree of natural importance
• Increased tourism and associated revenue
• Number of structures and number of acres protected

Henry C. Option Values in the Economics of Irreplaceable Assets. Review of Economic Studies. 1974;41(5):89

• Dissipation of wave energy

Meguro, Wendy, and Carl Kim. “Designing Resilient Coastal Communities With Living Shorelines.” OAPEN Home, Routledge, 2022.

• Tons of erosion prevented
• Time left before total erosion
• Maintenance of shoreline in current state

Bishop, R. C., & Boyle, K. J. (1985). The economic value of Illinois beach state nature preserve. Cangelosi, A., Wiher, R., Taverna, J., & Cicero, P. (2001). Soil erosion in the Maumee River Basin in revealing the economic value of protecting the Great Lakes. Croke, K., Fabian, R., & Brenniman, G. (1987). Estimating the value of beach preservation in an urban area. The Environmental Professional, 9, 42-48.

• Species Richness or total number of taxa;
• Plant Diversity or Evenness indices—account for abundance of species

Pearce, David W. (David William), and Dominic Moran. The Economic Value of Biodiversity. London: Earthscan Pub., 1994. Print.

• Amount (acerage) of habitat protected

Whitehead, J. C., Groothuis, P. A., Southwick, R., & Foster-Turley, P. (2009). Measuring the economic benefits of Saginaw Bay coastal marsh with revealed and stated preference methods. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 35, 430-437.

• Total stock of groundwater
• Amount of groundwater recharge (I.e., in Acre Feet)

Cutter WB. Valuing Groundwater Recharge in an Urban Context. Land Economics. 2007;83(2):234-252.